Types of marine concrete structures

P.E. Smith , in Marine Concrete Structures, 2016

Precast sheet piles

Sheet pile quay walls have been constructed in South Africa using both reinforced and prestressed concrete sheet piles of special cross-section. Figs 2.16–2.19 show concrete sheet pile wall examples and details of the pile cross-section and pile installation that have traditionally been used in South Africa. The piles are typically tied together by an in-situ cap at the top, which acts as a waler to distribute the tie forces to the discrete anchors. The cap creates a quay edge that is cast to normal concrete tolerances and accommodates the larger placing tolerances likely to be obtained by the driven sheet piles.

Figure 2.16. Concrete sheet pile wall. The in-situ concrete cap acts as a waler and distributes the lateral earth loads from the sheet piles into the anchor bars, which may be at 2- to 3-m centres.

Figure 2.17. Precast concrete sheet pile cross-section (dimensions in millimetres are illustrative). Piles of this cross-section were used in many South African structures in the 1970s and 1980s. The width transverse to the wall could be increased to give a pile with greater flexural capacity and the length could be increased to reduce the number of piles and joints to be sealed.

Figure 2.18. Precast concrete sheet pile installation details. The upper view shows how the shape creates a void in between the piles into which a grout sock is installed to seal the gap. The tapered pile toe shown in the lower view acts to force the pile against the previously installed pile as it is driven.

Figure 2.19. The retaining wall at the back of a dolphin berth in Richards Bay is constructed from concrete sheet piles with the upper section, above mid-tide, in in-situ concrete. Also of note in this photograph is the use of precast concrete for the bearing piles and longitudinal beams of the roadway. The headstock and roadway deck are in in-situ concrete.

All concrete components of the wall are reinforced or prestressed, and appropriate durability measures are recommended. Pretensioned prestressing of the piles is advantageous as it enables longer pile lengths than reinforced piles and the pre-stress helps to close up any cracks that may occur during driving.

The chief reason for the shape of the pile cross-section is to create a void in between the piles into which is installed a grout sock to seal the gap. Unlike steel sheet piles, the concrete version does not have clutches, and therefore the grout sock between the piles is required to create the seal. The portion of sock in the tidal zone is filled with single-size stone to allow for water flow in and out of the backfill during tidal cycles.

Despite the use of the grout sock, experience has shown that the walls are vulnerable to the loss of the retained material through the gaps between the piles.

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Use of Bamboo and Bakau Piles for Soil Improvement and Application of a Pile–Raft System for Embankment Construction on Peat and Soft Soils

Paulus P. Rahardjo , in Ground Improvement Case Histories, 2015

24.3.5 Bamboo piles for excavation stability in soft clay

For excavation where a sheet pile is used, bamboo piles can be installed behind the sheet pile wall or at the bottom of the excavation in front of the sheet pile to increase the stability. Broms and Wong (1985) suggested that the role of the timber piles is to reduce active earth pressure (when installed behind the wall) and to increase the passive pressure (when installed in front of the wall); however, the real mechanism of this assumption is still unverified and further research is needed. Figure 24.8 shows the method to estimate reduction of active pressure and addition of passive pressure.

Figure 24.8. The use of piles for the stability of excavation.

 (Source: From Broms and Wong (1985)).

The magnitude of active pressure reduction or passive pressure increase will be influenced by the length, spacing, and extent of the timber piles installed. Global stability needs to be considered as well.

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The construction of shield tunnel shafts

Kui Chen , ... Shengjun Jiao , in Shield Construction Techniques in Tunneling, 2021

5.4.1 Steel sheet pile enclosure construction shaft

In this method, steel sheet piles are inserted into the ground by a hammering or vibrating pile driver, and the vibrating pile driver is used for drawing. It not only has high efficiency but also has low costs. However, due to environmental pollution problems such as noise and vibration, these methods are seldom used in cities. As an alternative method, the steel sheet piles can be pressed into the ground by using equipment such as augers, hydraulic jacks, etc. Also various drawing methods have been proposed, but all have the disadvantages of low efficiency and high cost. In addition, both the driving depth and drawing height of this method are limited. The steel sheet pile has U-shaped, H-shaped, and Z-shaped cross-sections, as shown in Fig. 5-5. The retaining wall has better rigidity by using a steel sheet pile.

Figure 5-5. Cross-section types of steel sheet piles: (a) U-shaped, (b) H-shaped, (c) Z-shaped, and (d) steel pipe.

The most difficult problem in the construction of a steel sheet pile retaining shaft is the deformation accompanying the excavation of the shaft. Sometimes the joints of steel sheet piles are articulated form, which are less rigid than other retaining wall materials. The suitable depth range of the shaft constructed by steel sheet pile shaft method is less than 15 m.

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Temporary Structures

Ruwan Rajapakse , in Construction Engineering Design Calculations and Rules of Thumb, 2017

21.4.1 Cofferdams in Bridge Pier Construction

Bridge piers are mostly constructed in rivers and water has to be kept out of the construction zone during construction. Typical bridge pier is shown in Fig. 21.12.

Fig. 21.12. Typical bridge pier.

Construction procedure of a typical cofferdam constructed using sheet piles for a bridge pier is shown in Fig. 21.13.

Fig. 21.13. Dredge the bottom where the cofferdam to be constructed.

STEP 1: The bottom is dredged to remove lose sediments and to obtain hard bottom surface (Fig. 21.14).

Fig. 21.14. Install piles.

STEP 2: Drive soldier piles and construct wales (horizontal beams).

Soldier piles are driven first. These piles should extend deep into the riverbed. Soldier piles will take most of the load. Wales or the horizontal beams are constructed to provide stability to the structure (Fig. 21.15).

Fig. 21.15. Construct walls with sheet piles.

STEP 3: Drive watertight sheet piles between soldier piles and attach them to the soldier piles.

Watertight sheet piles are driven and attached to the structure. It is important to make sure that the cofferdam is stable during the construction process (Fig. 21.16).

Fig. 21.16. Concrete the bottom.

STEP 4: Concrete the bottom. Then dewater inside the cofferdam (sheet piles are not shown). Piles are driven to hold the concrete base down.

Once the sheet piles are driven and attached to soldier piles, the base is concreted. The concrete base has to be designed to make sure that it will not fail due to the buoyant pressure of water. In some cases piles are driven prior to concreting the base to hold the base down. Piles can also be driven after constructing the base by coring holes through the concrete base. Driving of piles can be done from a barge from the top and extra length can be cut off.

Some engineers place gravel on top of the concrete to hold the base down instead of driving piles (Fig. 21.17).

Fig. 21.17. Construct the pier.

Construction workers can go inside the cofferdam and build the pier:

It is needless to say that the construction methodology depends upon the site conditions. If rock is encountered, a concrete base can be placed on the rock. In this case piles may not be necessary to hold the base. Again, one has to be careful of cracks and fissures in the rock. If water can migrate through cracks and fissures in the rock, the concrete base will be subjected to uplift forces.

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Volume 1

K. Yamamoto , ... R. Kitamura , in Computational Mechanics–New Frontiers for the New Millennium, 2001

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Figure 5 shows the distribution of velocity vectors around the sheet pile after 15  minutes and 24   hours (CASE 5). In Fig. 5(a), larger velocity vectors occur around the edge of the steel sheet pile and the bottom of excavation. While in Fig. 5(b), larger velocity vectors occur even in the gravel layer, which is located on the right side of the steel sheet pile. It is noted that little difference is seen for the velocity of flow after 24 fours. The distribution of pressure head corresponding to Fig. 5 is shown in Fig. 6. Comparing Fig. 6(a) with Fig. 6(b), it is found that the distribution of pressure head goes down with the progress of time.

Figure 5. Distribution of velocity vectors around sheet pile

Figure 6. Distribution of pressure head around sheet pile

Figure 7 shows the deformation property around the sheet pile. In Fig. 7(a), the upward deformation is totally seen. In particular, the deformation around the bottom of excavation is larger due to the upward seepage flow. In Fig. 7(b), a little deformation is seen around the steel sheet pile. It is found that the upward deformation is totally reduced with the progress of time. This is because the velocity of flow around the bottom of excavation is getting steady state and the amount of the spring water is reduced.

Figure 7. Deformation property around sheet pile

Figure 8 shows the distribution of safety factors of elements around the steel sheet pile. The safety factors of elements are classified into four ranges. Comparing Fig. 8(a) with Fig. 8(b), it is found that the safety factors of elements are increased around the edge of the steel sheet pile and the bottom of excavation, and in the gravel layer with the progress of time. This fact is due to the influence of inflow from the river, which is located on the right side of the analytical model.

Figure 8. Distribution of safety factor around sheet pile

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Notable Southern African marine structures

P.E. Smith , in Marine Concrete Structures, 2016

10.5.2 Concrete components

The main structural component of the quay wall is the steel sheet pile, but reinforced concrete still has an important role to play in the structure. The cap serves to spread the concentrated bollard and crane rail loads to the anchors and piles. Below the main cap are the hanging cope panels that support the elastomeric fenders and safety ladders. In addition to supporting the quay furniture, the cope acts as a cladding to protect the steel sheet piles in the tidal zone. The cope face is a reinforced, precast concrete unit that cantilevers down from the in situ cap cast. The gap between the cope unit and the sheet piles is filled with plain in situ concrete that seals the face of the steel within the tidal zone and prevents free access of salt water and oxygen, thereby minimising corrosion of the bare steel. Sacrificial anodes protect the steel surface of the fully immersed pile, but in the tidal zone, cathodic protection is less effective, and therefore it is preferred to clad and shield the pile. See Fig. 10.59.

Figure 10.59. Durban Maydon Wharf 12: cope cross section.

 Adapted from project drawings by Transnet National Ports Authority/Prestedge Retief Dresner Wijnberg (Pty) Ltd.

A reinforced concrete, inverted T, deadman anchor block was used for the quay wall. It is connected to the sheet pile wall by steel anchor rods. Anchor walls such as this may be precast or cast in situ, and in this case the contractor elected to use in situ. Although it is fully buried and subject to little oxygen exchange in service, the full requirements for reinforced concrete in the tidal zone were applied, as once buried, there will be no possibility of access for maintenance.

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Volume 1

T. Kodaka , ... R. Morimoto , in Computational Mechanics–New Frontiers for the New Millennium, 2001

TWO-DIMENSIONAL SEEPAGE FAILURE MODEL TEST

The classical seepage failure problem in which the horizontal sandy ground with an embedded sheet pile is considered. Figure 3 illustrates the model test apparatus. The sandy ground model is made by water sedimentation method using Toyoura sand to set the relative density Dr =   60%. The water head of upstream, i.e. left side from sheet pile, is gradually raised until the occurrence of seepage failure. The rate of raising the water head is 2   cm/min. Figure 4 shows the deformation pattern of sandy ground around the sheet pile with different water head difference h. When the water head difference reaches 17.2   cm, the sand deposit of down stream near the sheet pile gradually heaves. The boiling of sand is observed at a water head difference of 18.5   cm.

Figure 3. Model test apparatus and boundary conditions

Figure 4. Deformation of sand deposit with different water head difference h

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Civil engineering and building works

British Electricity International , in Station Planning and Design (Third Edition), 1991

8.2.1 Cofferdams

Figure 3.27 shows a diagrammatic arrangement for the construction of a typical closed sheet pile cofferdam used for a construction in water; a similar arrangement would also be suitable for a construction on land. Sheet piles are obtainable in various sections and lengths and have interlocking clutches along their edges, so that when driven they form a watertight wall. Diesel, steam and compressed air hammers are used for driving sheet piles, and electrically-driven vibrators can be used for driving and extracting piles. A 'silent' hydraulic system is available, albeit expensive, if noise or vibration needs to be minimised. The sheet piles are driven down into an impervious layer, or into a firm foundation such as chalk or hard ballast taking care not to drive so hard as to decouple the clutches at the bottom.

Fig. 3.27. Sheet piled cofferdam

Excavation, or dewatering in the case of an offshore cofferdam, proceeds in stages so that the various levels of bracing can be assembled. In large cofferdams the long struts may need supporting at mid-span by temporary piles called 'king' piles. The bottom bracings are spaced more closely together to take the increased load with increased depth. Excavation and bracing is continued until the foundation level is reached, when concreting of the permanent structure follows in the normal way. Piles may be driven below the excavated level if needed. If the sheet piles are to form part of the permanent structure, concrete is poured against them, and the temporary bracings removed as work progresses. This practice is not recommended, however, for should there be any ground pile movement or any flexing of the sheet piles when removing struts serious damage can be caused to the recently poured concrete structure. The sheet piles are otherwise driven wide of the permanent structure, so that as it rises within the cofferdam, load from the sheet piles can be progressively transferred to the concrete walls by short struts and wedges. The space between the sheet piles and the concrete is finally backfilled or flooded and the piles extracted.

Considerable temporary works design is necessary to place the cofferdam walings and struts so that the main vertical reinforcement is not fouled and the rising shutters can sail past walings until concrete is just below them. Folding wedges between the waling and the sheet piles can then be taken out and the waling and strutting removed. Thus load need not be transferred to green concrete. To achieve this it is often necessary for the permanent works to be substantially re-designed to accommodate the complex temporary works.

This form of construction is widely used for such structures as pumphouse, intakes and outfalls, ash plants, and the deeper parts of large open cut excavations. Conveyors, cable ducts and culverts are frequently constructed within continuous sheet pile cofferdams with long modules of piles, strutting and shuttering being fleeted forward. Intake and outfall structures in calm or shallow water lend themselves to construction within a circular cofferdam of piling or diaphragm walling. In these types cross-bracing can be eliminated by using reinforced concrete circular walings in compression to support the cofferdam wall, leaving the centre free of obstructions.

The diaphragm wall or bentonite trench wall technique makes use of the properties of bentonite and bentonite clay suspensions in water to produce pump-able liquid/gels with specific gravities above 1.0 and some shear strength equivalent. This fluid is used to support the sides of an excavation until digging is complete, when it is displaced by reinforcing cages and concrete carefully tremied in from the bottom. The displaced bentonite is then cleaned and pumped elsewhere for re-use. Excavation is done by machine working through the fluid and when working in shallow water it is usual to provide a temporary artificial island from which to excavate. Walls made in this manner have been incorporated in permanent works with little or no surface treatment.

The design of a cofferdam is a difficult exercise because of soil mechanics not lending itself to precise analysis, and failures have occurred. Failure may be due to the mechanical failure of the lower struts, or in a plastic soil the unbalanced earth pressures may cause the sheet piles below the bottom strut to buckle and

the bottom of the excavation to heave up. Unbalanced hydrostatic head may cause water and fine material to flow under the toes of the sheet piles, and the bottom of the excavation to 'boil up'. Particular care is needed when there is a large range of tide or groundwater outside which must be balanced during all stages of construction. Groundwater lowering, as described in Section 8.3 of this chapter, may be sufficient to deal with this problem. The out-of-balance forces may also be overcome by flooding the cofferdam, excavating under water with grabs to below foundation level, and placing a layer of mass concrete under water before pumping out for construction to continue. This mass concrete must be thick enough to balance the forces likely to cause failure, and to form in effect a permanent bottom strut and seal to the cofferdam. It may also be tied to underlying rock and anchored down if there is any danger of the cofferdam becoming buoyant.

Injection grouting techniques may be employed to increase the strength of the soils and reduce their permeability. Depending on the nature of the soil, the materials used vary; examples are cement grout, special clays (sometimes mixed with cement), PFA, bitumen compounds, and a variety of chemicals. These are so effective in certain soils that excavation within a grout curtain has been carried out without recourse to sheet piling.

In very large cofferdams, which may be required to enclose the entire area of bulk excavation for a power station, it is impracticable to support struts right across such a large area. In this case the cofferdam walls are tied back with steel rods or cables to anchors in firm ground, or berm is left immediately at the edge of the foundations to support the wall. When the permanent foundation has been built sufficiently close to the sheet piles, the berm is removed and replaced by raking struts braced off the foundations.

The depth to which construction can proceed in cofferdams is limited according to soil conditions and it may be necessary for shafts to use an upper cofferdam to get a seal at rockhead and then sink a second cofferdam through it.

Three other methods for forming deep foundations are now discussed and they are equally suitable for construction on land or through water.

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Design and specification of marine concrete structures

P.E. Smith , in Marine Concrete Structures, 2016

3.7.5 Piles

Concrete bearing piles may be precast or cast in situ inside a casing, and sheet piles are always precast. Precast piles may be reinforced or pretensioned and prestressed, and the latter assists in closing up cracks that may form during driving.

Precast piles are cast on their sides, and the bending moments generated by their self-weight need to be checked during handling and storage in the precast yard and when the pile is pitched prior to driving. Fig. 3.3 shows the optimal position of lifting and support points for the horizontal and pitching positions such that the hogging and sagging bending moments are balanced. The first lift off the casting bed is likely to be done at an early age and the concrete strength at the time should be used for the lifting reinforcement calculation.

Figure 3.3. Optimal pile lifting and support for horizontal and pitching positions.

When piles are used on land, they are normally fully buried and terminate in a pile cap or ground beam. In marine structures the piles typically have the pile cap or headstock located above water level. There are therefore two distinct parts to the pile; the embedded length in which the penetration is determined by geotechnical design, and the exposed length between the seabed and superstructure, which is effectively a column. The marine pile is subject to axial and lateral loads, and the design follows normal methods and recommendations for column design subject to combined axial loads and bending moments. In a jetty or quay structure, a 2D or 3D frame analysis is undertaken to determine the pile axial loads, shears and bending moments, and a lower support point for the piles is determined or assumed at which the pile achieves 'fixity' in the soil.

The pile is subject to the full range of microenvironments from XS1 to XS3, but as it is a single element, it is pragmatic to design the whole pile for the worst exposure case. As is typical for piling, the penetration of the pile may vary from the intended design, and therefore the location of a particular microenvironment within the length of the pile is not predictable, which emphasises the need to design the whole pile for the worst exposure class.

In South African ports, a conservative approach has been taken toward piles, and in cases where it has not been possible to use a precast concrete pile, it has been preferred to cast an in situ concrete pile inside a tubular steel casing rather than have a hollow tubular steel pile. This is because concrete is viewed as more durable and requiring less maintenance than steel. In this type of pile the steel casing is taken as sacrificial without any contribution to the strength or durability of the pile.

Another approach that is used in some ports is to have steel tubular piles supporting a concrete superstructure. In this configuration the connection between the pile and the superstructure is a reinforced concrete plug in the top of the pile, which transfers the bending moments and forces via bond on the inside face of the pile. The design of this type of connection can be derived from clause 15.1, 'Grouted connections' of BS EN ISO 19902:2007. The clause covers the typical grouted connection used between offshore oil and gas jacket structures and the piles used to secure them on the seabed. Fig. 3.4 illustrates typical jetty and offshore structure pile connections.

Figure 3.4. Typical jetty and offshore structure pile connections.

Similar design recommendations are contained in NORSOK N-004 and DNV-OS-J101 . The latter standard addresses grouted connections for offshore wind turbine structures and considers the vibrations inherent in such installations.

Satisfactory durability is achieved for the steel tubular pile by using one or more methods, such as paint coating, sacrificial anodes, sacrificial steel thickness and wrapping of the pile in the tidal zone and above.

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Construction methodologies and challenges for marine concrete structures

S.N. Allen , G.A.C. Moore , in Marine Concrete Structures, 2016

4.3.1 Quay walls

Of the five types of quay walls (block, caisson, counterfort, cantilever and sheet pile; see Chapter 2), the first four can be constructed 'in the dry' by conventional methods, which will not be discussed here.

Block, caisson and counterfort walls in marine construction all require some dredging to form a stable platform and the formation of a stone bed on which to place the respective units. The dredging would normally be carried out by grabbing, cutter-suction or trailer suction, and it is usually performed by a specialist subcontractor. The dredging survey must be controlled using differential GPS to tight tolerances. The platform or excavation in the sea bed would then be surveyed by multi-beam sonar to produce a set of plans and cross-sections to compare with the requirements of the construction drawings. The multi-beam survey, which is also controlled by differential GPS, should produce accuracies of ±20   mm in height and ±100   mm laterally. This is far more accurate than the older methods of depth soundings or echo soundings, and it should produce more economical construction, as the dredging can be carried out to tighter tolerances than in the past.

Similarly, modern surveying methods should help to produce more economical construction of the stone bed, as there should be less material wastage. The stone bed is usually made of 75-mm single-sized crushed stone, which would be handled by a grab crane on a barge and supplied by stone supply barges. The stone bed may initially, if the depth of stone so dictates, be carried out by rough dumping of stone from hopper barges or by grabbing off a stone barge. However, both methods require dumping to a calculated, coordinated pattern. The final stone level is achieved by using a stone spreader where compaction is not required, merely an allowance for settlement being made depending on subsoil conditions; see Fig. 4.3.

Figure 4.3. Typical stone spreader arrangement for concrete quay wall founding.

 Courtesy: LTA Interbeton Bafokeng Joint Venture.

A block wall is normally constructed of precast concrete blocks laid from a crane barge, supplied by a block transport barge. The size or weight of the blocks is usually dictated by the size of equipment available, but clearly the largest size or weight of block is the most efficient. Concrete blocks are cast at a land-based precast yard, and blocks of 40   ton are usually the largest that can be handled by normal land-based plant and transport. Blocks that are much heavier can be handled by purpose-designed equipment. The crane barge for block-laying is securely anchored over the position of the block wall, and the blocks are laid to surveyed lines and levels. Where the block wall retains fill for hardstanding areas, the joints between the blocks are sealed, usually with grout socks in preformed recesses. The voids in hollow block walls are filled typically with sand or rubble. (See Chapter 2 for more details on block walls.)

A caisson wall is constructed of adjacent caissons, usually constructed in a dry dock or in an area below sea level that has been bunded off and dewatered. If the dry dock or bunded area has water depth limitations during the float-out sequence, and consequently the caisson cannot be constructed to full height in the dry dock or bunded area, the caisson construction can be continued with the caisson floating at a mooring. The caisson normally requires ballasting down with each vertical lift of the walls for stability. The caisson construction method depends entirely on available water depths, dry dock availability and final water depths. Caissons are floated out of the casting yard and, where water depths permit, ballasted down to a placing depth. The placing depth is the draft of the submerged structure and is a calculated depth, to clear the stone bed by an acceptable margin, at a certain state of tide. The caisson is positioned at the prescribed state of tide and then held in position on a falling tide, until it is properly grounded. The grounding is usually accelerated by water ballasting. Depending on the size of the caisson and the water conditions, the positioning of the caisson may be done by a couple of small inflatable boats in very sheltered inland waters or a fleet of large tugs in areas with large currents or heavy seas. In some conditions, it may be necessary to provide fixed points against which to push the caisson while grounding, in the form of piles. Subsequent caissons are placed against the preceding ones to form the wall, and the preformed joints between the caissons are grouted up with grout socks. The voids in the caissons are then usually filled with sand by either pumping or crane grab.

Counterfort walls are constructed from adjacent counterforts, lifted into position by heavy-lift purpose-built floating equipment, such as that shown in Fig. 4.4. The counterforts are typically constructed in the dry in a bunded area below water level. The bunded area when opened up allows the floating lifting equipment to move in and lift up the counterforts in sequential order for placing in their final position. The preformed joints between adjacent units are grouted up with grout socks. Fig. 4.5 illustrates a counterfort unit being transported by a floating gantry arrangement.

Figure 4.4. Gantry for precast element placement.

 Courtesy: Clough Murray & Roberts Marine.

Figure 4.5. Counterfort cantilever precast unit in transit, supported by a gantry.

 Courtesy: Clough Murray & Roberts Marine.

Cantilever walls are always constructed in the dry by conventional methods.

Sheet pile walls can be constructed by three possible methods. First, either the concrete (or steel) sheet pile can be driven by various means through existing or fill material, and the marine side of the fill excavated subsequently to form the wall. Second, the sheet pile wall can be driven overhand from the bank or edge of the fill. Third, the sheet pile wall can be driven from floating equipment, out in the main body of water. All methods will require a guide frame to control the alignment of the individual sheet piles. Driving can be by gravity hammer, vibrating hammer or hydraulic hammer. Fig. 4.6 shows equipment used for driving concrete sheet piling, in this case, barge-mounted.

Figure 4.6. Specialised barge-mounted piling rig for inclined MV piles.

 Courtesy: Stefanutti Stocks Marine, South Africa.

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